Volume
6, Issue 2 Volume
6, Issue 2In his article "The Coolhunt" in the March 17, 1997, issue of The New Yorker, Malcolm Gladwell describes diffusion research, the study of how ideas and innovations spread. Because of its applicability to construction metrication, we are reprinting the majority of his description, with the permission of The New Yorker:
"One of the most famous diffusion studies is Bruce Ryan and Neal Gross's analysis of the spread of hybrid seed corn in Greene County, Iowa, in the nineteen-thirties. The new seed corn was introduced there in about 1928, and it was superior in every respect to the seed that had been used by farmers for decades. But it wasn't adopted all at once. Of the two hundred and fifty-nine farmers studied by Ryan and Gross, only a handful had started planting the new seed by 1933. In 1934, sixteen took the plunge. In 1935, twenty-one more followed; the next year, there were thirty-six, and the year after that a whopping sixty-one. The succeeding figures were then forty-six, thirty-six, fourteen, and three, until, by 1941, all but two of the two hundred and fifty-nine farmers studied were using the new seed. In the language of diffusion research, the handful of farmers who started trying the hybrid seed corn at the very beginning of the thirties were the "innovators," the adventurous ones. The slightly larger group that followed them was the "early adopters." They were the opinion leaders in the community, the respected, thoughtful people who watched and analyzed what those wild innovators were doing and then did it themselves. Then came the big bulge of farmers in 1936, 1937, and 1938 -- the "early majority" and the "late majority," which is to say the deliberate and the skeptical masses who would never try anything until the most respected farmers had tried it. Only after they had been converted did the "laggards," the most traditional of all, follow suit. The critical thing about this sequence is that it is almost entirely interpersonal. According to Ryan and Gross, only the innovators relied to any great extent on radio advertising and farm journals and seed salesmen in making their decision to switch to the hybrid. Everyone else made his decision overwhelmingly because of the example and the opinions of his neighbors and peers."
So it goes with construction metrication. The most innovative personnel in the most innovative federal agencies and state highway departments have been the first to embrace metric conversion, and the most innovative architects, engineers, contractors, subcontractors, and suppliers have been the first to bid on metric work. Now they are being followed by the early adopters, the opinion leaders in the construction industry. By the turn of the century the early majority should begin to come on board, followed over the next few years by the late majority and, finally, by the laggards. No one knows for sure how long the process will take, but with strong inter-industry support a decade should do it.
You can't tell by looking at it, but the recently completed FBI regional office building in Washington, D.C. is constructed in the metric system. In the March of 1996 and again this April, the NIBS Construction Metrication Council met adjacent to the building site and quizzed construction personnel about their metric experiences. On the positive side, the $60-million, 8-story building was delivered on-time and within budget. Contractor and construction personnel quickly learned to use metric measures. The prime contractor, Clark Construction, is looking forward to more metric work.
There were some teething problems, though. Smaller subcontractors sometimes had difficulty submitting shop drawings in metric dimensions. Longer lead times were needed for obtaining (and restocking) modular metric products such as suspended ceiling system components. And local government reviews for water and sewer plans required special hand-holding.
The FBI buildings's construction superintendent, John Morrow, stated that none of the subcontractors or any of the 100 or so entities involved in the project have claimed to have lost money due to metrication. "If you lose money on metric," Mr. Morrow said, "you have a serious management problem. It means you aren't applying yourself." In many cases, the subs and suppliers seem to have made their bids based on doing the job conventionally, assuming correctly that any metric-related problems could be resolved on the job site.
Judging from the results of numerous metric projects under construction around the country, the FBI regional office building is typical. In almost all cases, costs and schedules are unaffected, and after a short learning period everyone on the job settles into metric use. The availability of a few modular metric products remains a problem, but one that is diminishing as the number of metric projects increases.
After all, not much changes but the measuring tape.
All across the United States, highway projects totaling billions of dollars are being constructed in the metric system. Work is going well, with virtually no schedule delays, contractor problems, or increases in project costs. Some smaller Southern road contractors with no metric experience, however, believe that metrication will cost them money. Although there is no evidence whatsoever to justify this concern, it has prompted the introduction of H.R. 813 by Rep. Bachus of Alabama. This bill would eliminate the October 1, 2000 FHWA deadline for the metrication of federally-funded highway projects. In response, the Deputy Secretary of Transportation, Mortimer Downey, sent the following letter, dated May 14, 1997, to the Chairman of the House Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure, Bud Shuster:
Dear Mr. Chairman:
The Department of Transportation would like to take this opportunity
to present its views on H.R. 813, a bill "To amend the National
Highway System Designation Act of 1995 to prohibit the Secretary
of Transportation from requiring States to use the metric system
with respect to designing, advertising, or preparing documents
for Federal-aid highway projects."
The Department strongly opposes H.R. 813 because it would create
significant confusion in the highway construction industry; result
in costly duplication in the preparation of engineering documents,
contract advertisements and other materials used in highway projects;
and reverse the progress that the majority of States have already
made in converting to the uniform metric system.
The bill would amend section 205(c)(2) of the National Highway
System Designation Act of 1995 (NHS Act) by eliminating the deadline
we established to implement the Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness
Act of 1988 (P.L. 100-418, August 23, 1988). Pursuant to that
Act, states were required by the Federal Highway Administration
(FHWA) to convert to metric usage in the preparation of documents
relating to Federal-aid highway projects by October 1, 1996. The
NHS Act postponed the 1996 compliance date to September 30, 2000.
H.R. 813 would make such compliance voluntary for the States.
FHWA has worked closely with the American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) and the States to
coordinate an orderly transition to the metric system. Currently,
over 40 States are surveying and designing their new projects
in metric units. To date, States have spent nearly $71 million
to convert their standard plans, specifications, and computer
programs. Protracting the conversion process by making conversion
voluntary could extend the time period when both metric and inch-pound
construction projects are advertised and awarded and could create
a period of confusion for private citizens, local government agencies,
contractors, subcontractors, fabricators, and materials suppliers.
This could result in the increased possibility of bidding, construction,
or supplier errors for projects in either system of units.
Enactment of H.R. 813 would create uncertainty for all involved
in highway construction. Adjacent states could be operating in
different measurement systems, requiring the contractors, consultants,
fabricators, and materials suppliers to use two measurement systems
and maintain dual inventories. Information sharing between States
could become awkward. FHWA would be forced to use dual units in
all documents, databases, and resources as would AASHTO in developing
its standards, which would be costly and burdensome.
Conversion to the metric system is intended to enhance the competitiveness
of our industries in the global marketplace. H.R. 813 would clearly
detract from that goal. Although we cannot export our highways,
our transportation industries can and do export the experience
and technology used to construct them efficiently. Most of the
construction equipment manufactured in the United States, including
heavy equipment, testing equipment and survey equipment, is now
based on metric units to facilitate export. Reversion would require
equipment manufacturers, consultants and contractors to operate
in both systems of measurement.
Accordingly, the Department strongly urges you to reject this
attempt to turn back the progress we have made with our partners
in the States and with the private sector. H.R. 813 is not a minor
corrections bill; it is instead an anticompetitiveness, anti-efficiency
bill that would burden the U.S. economy unnecessarily.
Thank you for the opportunity to comment on this legislation.
The Office of Management and Budget advises that, from the standpoint
of the Administration, there is no objection to the submission
of this report to the Committee.
Measures similar to H.R. 813 also have been introduced in various proposals for this year's renewal of the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (ISTEA). But the Administration's support for maintaining the year 2000 FHWA deadline significantly reduces the chances of the measures passing, and opposition to removing the deadline is building in Congress. In addition, neither the Associated Road and Transportation Builders Association (ARTBA) nor the Associated General Contractors of America (AGC) supports a change in the October 2000 deadline. A resolution by AASHTO's Standing Committee on Highways opposes any delays in highway metrication, stating that such delays will waste tens of millions of dollars.
The Construction Metrication Council concurs with the AASHTO Committee's position and is working with the FHWA and others on this issue.
Here is an updated and expanded list of metric resources last published in the July-August 1995 issue of this newsletter.
National Institute of Building Sciences (Publications Department, 1201 L St., N.W., Suite 400, Washington DC 20005; phone 202-289-7800). All prices include shipping and handling.
The above publications also are available in electronic form on the NIBS Construction Criteria Base (CCB), a large database of construction criteria and standards on optical disk. For more information, call or write NIBS or visit the CCB's web site at www.ccb.org.
U.S. Metric Association (10245 Andasol Ave., Northridge, CA 91325; phone 818-368-7443). Prices do not include postage. Member discounts are available; call USMA for membership information. For additional information on USMA products, mail a self-addressed envelope with 55 cents postage to the above address or visit http://lamar.colostate.edu/~hillger/.
American National Metric Council (Publications Department, 4330 East-West Highway, Suite 1117, Bethesda MD 20814-4408; phone 301-718-6508). Prices do not include postage. Member discounts are available; call ANMC for membership information.
Society of Automotive Engineers (400 Commonwealth Dr., Warrendale PA 15096-0001; phone 412-776-4841).
Blackhawk Metric Supply Inc. (Box 543, South Beloit IL 61080; phone 815-389-2850).
Black & White Publishing (Box 20, Busby, Alberta T0G
0H0 Canada; phone 403-674-6893).
Professional Publications Inc. (1250 Fifth Ave., Belmont CA 94002; phone 800-426-1178).
Human Resource Development Press (22 Amherst Rd., Amherst MA 01002; phone 800-822-2801).
IEEE Press (phone 800-678-IEEE).
American Institute of Architects (AIA Bookstore, 1735 New
York Ave., N.W., Washington DC 20006; phone 202-626-7475. The
following are also published by John Wiley & Sons, Professional
Reference and Trade Group, 605 Third Ave., New York, NY 10158;
phone 800-225-5945).
American Society of Civil Engineers (phone 800-548-2723 for publications).
Instrument Society of America (Box 3561, Durham NC 27702; phone 919-549-8411).
R. S. Means Company (Box 800, Kingston MA 02364; phone
800-632-6732).
Frank R. Walker Co. (Box 3180, Lisle IL 60532; phone 630-971-8989).
ARCOM (phone 703-684-9153).
National Institute of Building Sciences (1201 L Street
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20005; phone 202-289-7800; see www.spectext.org).
Building Officials and Code Administrators International (4051 W. Flossmoor Rd., Country Club Hills IL 60477-5795; phone 708-799-2300).
National Fire Protection Association (1 Batterymarch Park, Box 9101, Quincy MA 02269-9101; phone 1-800-344-3555).
ASTM (100 Barr Harbor Dr., West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959; phone 610-832-9585). Call ASTM for current prices. All ASTM standards are published in metric or dual units.
American National Standards Institute, Inc. (11 W. 42nd
St., New York NY 10036; phone 212-642-4900). Call ANSI for current
prices. Many ANSI standards are available in metric units.
National Institute of Standards and Technology (Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402-9325; phone 202-512-1800).
American Congress on Surveying and Mapping (5410 Grosvenor Lane, Suite 100, Bethesda MD 20814; phone 301-493-0200).
American Association of State and Highway Transportation Officials (444 N. Capital St., N.W., Suite 225, Washington DC 20001; phone 800-231-3475).
American Public Works Association (APWA Educational Foundation,
106 West 11th St., Suite 1800, Kansas City, MO 64105-1806; phone
816-472-6100).
BNi Building News (502 Maple Ave. West, Vienna, VA 22180; phone 800-873-6397).
Water Environment Federation (601 Wythe St., Alexandria VA 22314; phone 703-684-2400).
American Forest and Paper Association (formerly National Forest Products Association; 1111 19th St., N.W., Washington DC 20036; phone 800-890-7732).
Composite Panel Association (18928 Premiere Ct., Gaithersburg MD 20879; phone 301-670-0604).
Hardwood Plywood Manufacturers Association (Box 2789, Reston VA 22090-2789; phone 703-435-2900).
American Institute of Steel Construction (Metric Publications, 1 E. Wacker Dr., Suite 3100, Chicago IL 60601-2001; phone 800-644-2400 for publications and 312-670-5444 for software).
American Welding Society (550 N.W. LeJeune Rd, Box 35104, Miami FL 33135; phone 800-334-9353 or visit http://www.amweld.org).
American Concrete Institute (Box 9094, Farmington Hills, Detroit MI 48333-9094; phone 248-848-3700).
Portland Cement Institute (Order Processing, 5420 Old Orchard Rd., Skokie IL 60077; phone 800-868-6733).
Wire Reinforcing Institute (301 E. Sandusky Street, Findlay, OH 45840-7182; phone 419-425-9473).
Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute (944 N. Plum Grove Rd., Schaumburg IL 60173; phone 847-517-1200).
Industrial Fasteners Institute (1105 East Ohio Building,
1717 E. 9th St., Cleveland OH 44114; phone 216-241-1482).
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning
Engineers (1791 Tullie Circle, N.E., Atlanta GA 30329; phone
404-636-8400). Call ASHRAE for current prices. All ASHRAE standards
are published in metric or dual units. ASHRAE plans to discontinue
the use of inch-pound units by 2000.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (22 Law Dr., Box 2300, Fairfield NJ 07007; phone 1-800-843-2763). Call ASME for current prices. All ASME standards, except the Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, are published in either metric or dual units. ASME plans to discontinue the use of inch-pound units by 2001.
National Environmental Balancing Bureau (1385 Piccard Dr.,
Rockville MD 20850; phone 301-977-3698).
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. (Box 1331, Piscataway NJ 08855-1331; phone 800-678-IEEE).
National Fire Protection Association (1 Batterymarch Park,
Box 9101, Quincy MA 02269-9101; phone 1-800-344-3555). Call NFPA
for current prices. The text of all NFPA standards includes dual
units.
Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association (4201 Lafayette Center Dr., Chantilly VA 22021; phone 703-803-2980).
Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. (333 Pfingston Rd., Northbrook IL 60062; phone Global Engineering Documents at 800-854-7179).
National Elevator Industry, Inc. (185 Bridge Plaza, Room
310, Fort Lee, NJ 07024; phone 201-944-3211).
USG Interiors (100 Crocker Rd., Westlake, OH 44145-1089;
phone 216-871-1000).
Association for Manufacturing Technology (7901 Westpark
Dr., McLean VA 22102-4269; phone 703-893-2900).
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (Box 2300, Fairfield, NJ 07007; phone 800-843-2763).
The Canadian Directory of Metric Products is available
at no charge by sending a fax request to 213-346-2767.
Dual unit or metric tape measures are all that are needed for most job-site work and are readily available at larger hardware stores or directly from Stanley Tools (phone 860-225-5111), Lufkin/Cooper Tools (phone 919-362-1709), or U.S. Tape (phone 515-289-0500).
Metric measuring wheels are available from Redington Counters, Inc. (phone 800-395-7337).
Metric architectural and engineering scales are available from graphic arts supply stores. Popular models are Staedtler-Mars 987-18-1, Alvin 117 PM, and Charvoz 30-1261. Imprinted scales are available in bulk orders from Woodrow Engineering Company, Catalog No. 115 (Box 138, Sister Bay, WI 54234; phone 414-854-5946).
Scale Master II Plan, a wheeled, digital measuring device for doing take-offs from drawings, includes metric scales (Calculated Industries, Inc., 4840 Hytech Dr., Carson City, NV 89706; phone 702-885-4900).
Metric plumbing templates are available from American Standard
(phone Barbara Munson at 703-444-0547).
Metric conversion calculators include the Sharp Model EL-344G Metric Calculator, Texas Instruments Model 1895II (see ANMC on page 4), Radio Shack Model 65-828, and OHAUS Metric Conversion Calculator, $21.95 (phone 800-672-7722). An especially easy-to-use conversion calculator that also has fractional capability is the 1-Step Conversion Calculator Plus, $39.95 (4069 Caminito Suero, San Diego, Ca 92122-5103; phone 800-963-8742 or visit www.1-step.com).
Two construction calculator brands include metric units: InchMate Plus (Digitool, Box 12350, Aspen CO 81612; phone 970-925-8177) and Construction Master IV and Dimension Master Plus (Calculated Industries, Inc., 4840 Hytech Dr., Carson City, NV 89706; phone 702-885-4900).
Vidtrack Technologies Co. (540 S. Main St., Suite 941, Akron, OH 44311-1010; phone 330-762-5141).
GreyMATTERS Knowledge Foundry (Box 472552, Charlotte, NC 28211; e-mail graymatr@vnet.net).
Presley and Sons Systems (e-mail james.presley@worldnet.att.net).
Milmore Corporation (7425 S. Bushnell Blvd., Broken Arrow, OK 74116-2510; phone 918-357-2849; e-mail milner@oknet.com).
(See also Unicalc as listed under ANMC above.)
The two largest CAD vendors, Autodesk and Intergraph, allow the user to work in either inch-pound or metric units. Many structural, mechanical, and cost estimating programs have metric capability, too. Before purchasing computer software, make sure its base computations are in metric units.
Workplace Training (540 N. Arm Dr., Mound, MN 55364; phone 800-472-2564; e-mail phanssen@wptraining.com). Call for prices.
MMEI Corporation (2247 Lexington Pl., Livermore, CA 94550; phone 510-449-8992).